Does racism exist in the media towards black sportspeople? If so how are stereotypes being used?

The mass media have come to be an integral, all encompassing aspect of life. Whether it is watching television, reading a newspaper or surfing the net, the media have become an inherent part of the fabric of contemporary society. Many have argued then, (Biggs and Cobley, 1998) that it is the media who are responsible for shaping our views and opinions of the world in which we live. Moreover, some writers have even come to suggest that the impact and influence that the media now have can create social problems or moral panics (Cohen, 2002). It is indeed the media who are largely responsible for creating representations of particular groups within society and very often this can create skewed perceptions of reality.
Apparently in the 21st century we now live in a racist free, multicultural society… a utopian paradise where the colour of a person’s skin is no longer an issue? However, although we have moved away from worst days of racial discrimination witnessed in the previous two centuries, this archaic and colonial system of classification, more commonly known as racism, is still present on some level or another and continues to linger today as the world’s secret shame. (Coakley, 2001)
One key problem area where racism prevails is in the current sporting landscape. Sport is undoubtedly one of the greatest passions of recent times, however it has also provided a public platform in which racial sentiments have become largely manifest in recent years. Indeed, sport and the media have a somewhat symbiotic relationship whereby they feed-off one another. It is this relationship however, which has begun to accentuate the problems of racism in sport, specifically towards black sports persons.
This piece therefore sets out to suggest that in 21st century sport, racism, on some level or another, still exists. It aims to suggest that the mass media are instrumental in reinforcing and perpetuating common stereotypes of the black athlete. Firstly however, in studying such a controversial issue such as the one in hand, many researchers often fail to define their terms and often use words loosely. Therefore, in order to give this piece some context, it would seem appropriate to give a brief definition of some of the most important terms used throughout.
Racial discrimination or racism can be defined as “a body of ideas which rationalizes and justifies various social practices that perpetuate an unequal distribution of power between racial groups” (Kew, 1997: 89).
The term ‘race’ is an old, colonial socially constructed term which refers to the biological makeup of individuals making us different in appearance. However, the idea of ‘race’ has been discarded by many academics and researchers as it suggests a ‘classification’ system whereby all the people of the world are distinguished by their biological makeup and are subsequently regarded as being socially distinct. (Laker, 2002). Moreover, the term ‘race’ also has pejorative connotations towards minority groups. There seems to be an implicit mindset within society that the word ‘race’ is synonymous with black and Asian people. Subsequently, ‘race’ is normally used to portray white superiority and ultimately marginalizes these other groups. Therefore, the term ‘ethnicity’ is normally used instead. Laker (2002: 92) has defined ethnicity as “a socially distinct group because they share the same way of life associated with a common cultural background”.
In discussing ‘media’ representations of black sports people one is referring to outlets such as television, the press and the internet etc.
Television is often regarded as the ‘Window of the World’ in an increasingly ‘Global Media Village’. (Lull, 2000) Media events such as the Soccer World Cup which are broadcast throughout the world to live audiences reflect such notions. “Football has become the universal glue of media content”. (Rupert Murdock, Head of BSkyB, Cited in Boyle and Haynes, 2004).
In such a lucrative and prestigious event one would assume that FIFA, the world soccer governing body, would have racism ‘kicked-out’ of the game. However, evidence of racism during the 2006 World Cup Finals raised questions over FIFA’S awareness of the issue.
Cameroon’s star player Samuel Eto’o was so sickened by the opposing crowds racial chanting directed his way that he threatened to leave the field of play during a game according to an American press report. Furthermore, in the same report French football ace Thierry Henry is alleged to have received a racial slur from the coach of the Spanish team. (seattletimes.nwsource.com, 09/06/2006) Similarly, then England and Liverpool player Emile Heskey, was hurled abuse during an international friendly match from opposing fans and players. In a television interview shortly after the match, Gerard Houliier, Heskey’s then domestic coach at Liverpool, is reported to have said that “the abuse did not only come from the fans, but from the players. That shows how deep-rooted the problem actually is”. (Cited in the Daily Mail, 17/10/2002)
FIFA responded to these ongoing racial problems by suggesting that “you play to win. But it shouldn’t have anything to do with racism or violence…The problem will not disappear in a couple of days, but it’s important to highlight the problem when you have such a platform.” (Federico Addiechi, head of a FIFA division that deals with corporate social responsibility, (seattletimes.nwsource.com, 09/06/2006).
However, it is not only on a global scale that this kind of behaviour occurs. Domestic football leagues around the world have experienced issues of racism.
In the Italian Serie A League, Ivory Coast and Messina defender Marc Zoro was reduced to tears by racist slurs and boos in November 2006 from Inter Milan fans.
In Spain’s La Liga Samuel Eto’o of Barcelona could be seen mouthing “no more” after being taunted in February 2006 with monkey sounds from Real Zaragoza fans. And in the Ukraine, in a television interview national coach Oleg Blokhin said “youngsters should learn from native sons, not some zumba-bumba whom they took off a tree, gave him two bananas and now he plays in the Ukrainian League.” (seattletimes.nwsource.com, 09/06/2006)
This form of ‘institutional’ racism, (Kew, 1997) especially on global platforms such as the World Cup Finals, only reinforces and perpetuates common stereotypes of the black sports person within mainstream society… a stereotype which alludes to an ancestral past and which has no place in 21st century sport.
However, it is not only television that can be found guilty of accentuating racial stereotypical notions of the black athlete. The printing press, a long and established medium, has increasingly come under fire for the journalistic style used to portray black sports persons in their publications.
For example, there seems to be a stereotypical notion regarding the physicality of the black athlete. Carrington and McDonald (2002) argue that there is a typical myth of the black sports man, the one that suggests that he is strong, aggressive and fast. He is not intelligent or thoughtful at all and should be channeled into sports such as boxing. Furthermore, according to Kew (1997) this myth implies that a black athlete’s performance in sport can be accounted for by his innate anatomical, physiological features which give a distinct advantage over whites in some sports. How else can one explain the fact that there hasn’t been a white heavyweight boxing champion since Rocky Marciano? Or why is it that there have been hardly any white Olympic finalists in the men’s 100m finals in the last 30 years? (Kew, 1997: 93)
The press have helped perpetuate these stereotypical notions by creating pejorative and ultimately racist labels such as ‘the dark destroyer’ for black boxer Nigel Benn.
Moreover, according to Maguire et al (2002) the print media reinforce the idea of the black boxing athlete as an “animal-like aggressor”. For example, newspaper headlines ran the story of a Mike Tyson and Evander Holyfield fight by suggesting that Tyson was a “savage beast” after he bit off his opponent’s ear. (Maguire, et al, 2002)
Carrington and McDonald (2002) argue that these media saturated stereotypes help convince many young black athletes the sport is suited for them, which ultimately undermines the need for black people to do well in other walks of life. They also suggests that it is these ‘push’ factors such as the mass media, that inadvertently lead black athletes into sport since they accept the common sense stereotypical view of themselves prevalent in mainstream society. But what about the black female athlete?.
Writing in 1999, Jessica Edwards argues that a hierarchy currently exist which caters firstly for white skin, especially male white skin and that as a result the black female athlete remains virtually invisible. She suggests that when the black female athlete is represented in media discourses it is usually as a marketing tool, whereby the female body is exploited sexually. A typical example of this comes from the media representation of black female athlete Denise Lewis, who is deployed as a strong sexual figure. For example, one unofficial internet site displays a poster of Denise posing in British body paint colours with the logo “being a model is tiring…in all honesty I wouldn’t say no to a catwalk for Channel for an afternoon though”.(members.fortunecity.com/noops155/denise_lewis0005.jpg).
This verifies Edward’s idea that the physicality of black female athletes are viewed as a sexual objects. Lewis herself denies these remarks, so it would seem that the media have used her in this way for their own ends. Sex ultimately sells. (Biggs and Cobley, 1998)
According to Horne et al (1999) racism provides good headline news. The printing press are ultimately a business and any news that is going to sell newspapers must be considered ‘good news’. Much of this can be accounted for in terms of ownership and control of media output, which is predominately decided by white middle class professionals, which in turn leads to biases and racisms of its own.
Sarita Malik, in ‘The media an introduction’ (Briggs and Cobley, 1998) suggests that there is two key attitudes towards depictions of ‘race’ in the media. The Functionalist versus the Marxist’s view. The functionalist view suggests that program makers/journalists etc ‘cater for what the public want’ and simply reflect the existing and predominant views and opinions of ‘race’ and ethnicity. However, the Marxist view proposes the opposite, that those in control of the media ultimately shape the audiences perceptions of ‘race’ and ethnicity. Despite which theory may be correct, what is generally agreed is that although the media do not directly tell us what to think, they advertently tell us what to think about, and in doing so, set the agenda. So what is being done to challenge this ‘racist’ ideology that continues to creep into mass media output?
Although it has been suggested that sport provides a platform in which racial discrimination in profoundly manifest, over the years, and for a select few, it has provided a platform for racial emancipation.
For example, Muhammed Ali, arguably the ‘greatest’ heavyweight boxer of all time, refused to fight in the Vietnam War during the 1960s on the basis that “no Vietnamese ever called me nigger”. (Cited in Budd and Levermore, 2004: 43). Ali was a man of his time. His position did not excuse him from wider international affairs and he was subsequently jailed for his actions. However, this particular example shows how sport was used to challenge the dominant ideologies of the time. Ali is therefore not only remembered for his immense boxing talent, but for his political aspirations during the American Civil Rights movement, and has since been acknowledged when asked to light the Olympic flame at the opening ceremony of the 1996 Atlanta Games.
Furthermore, at the 1968 Mexico Olympics, two black American athletes (Tommie Smith and John Carlos) refused to uphold the American flag at their medal ceremony and instead held up their gloved fists in the black power salute. Their reasoning was “when we’re winning, we’re Americans, otherwise we’re just negros” (Cited in Budd and Levermore, 2004: 43).
Another popular example of sport acting as a symbol of change comes from the South African Springbok’s rugby World Cup victory in 1995. Previously divided by Apartheid up until the early nineties, South Africa came together as one ‘rainbow nation’ upon winning the 1995 tournament. This was epitomized by the gesture of Nelson Mandela, who embraced his oppressors wearing a Springbok shirt and hat and presented them with the trophy. According to one journalist, this gesture “was more powerful than a million words”. (The Times, 26th June, 1995) In this instance sport helped unite a nation and bring about change in a country previously torn apart by racial divisions.
On the surface global sport seems to be an area which is free from racial discrimination. A somewhat universal stage of global equality.
Indeed, sport is often perceived as one of the few platforms which is free for all and everyone is welcome. Upon closer inspection however, it must be understood that 21st century sport is not bereft of some level of racism.
Despite some rather rare protests, racism still continues to exist in an ‘intermittent fashion’ in contemporary sport. Reinforced and perpetuated by the mass media through television, the internet and the press, the problem is only becoming worse since dominant stereotypes of the black athlete remain alive in the collective consciousness of society.