English
中文This essay compares and contrasts the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, examining both belief systems and how followers of both traditions differ in their everyday adherence to the Buddhist philosophy. First the similarities are discussed and then the main differences between the two strands are examined. Finally a comparison of the two belief systems will be made, looking at the pros and cons of both branches.
After the passing away of the Buddha, his teachings were split between two traditions, Theravada, which moved Southwards towards Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos and Mahayana which moved northward towards Nepal, Mongolia, China, Korea and Vietnam. (Harris, 2:1998)
Similarities
Both the Theravada and Mahayana schools follow the core teachings of the historical Buddha and display a devotion to the image of the Buddha. (Harris, 26:1998). It is worth noting that unlike religions of the West which tend to follow the dualist or theist concept of God and humanity as existing separately, in the East there is a belief in one fundamental or Ultimate Reality. This is the monist or absolutist teaching of the Buddha that holds that all things are interconnected and that the dualist perception of the West is ‘maya’ (illusion). (Momen, 34:1999)
The actions of a Buddhist are guided by the Five Precepts, which help the individual to live a harmonious life. These are to:-
- Refrain from taking life.
- Refrain from taking that which is not given.
- Refrain from misuse of the senses.
- Refrain from telling lies.
- Refrain from self-intoxification with drink and drugs. (Snelling, 57-58:1998)
The law of karma encourages human beings to live a moral life: this can be achieved by following the Dharma (universal truth or law). The Buddha taught that there are three features of our earthly life, which he called ‘marks of existence’, that we cannot ignore if we are to reach enlightenment. They are anicca (impermanence), anatta (egolessness) and dukkha (suffering). As the Buddha saw all things as interralated and interdependent his teaching of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold path ultimately strive towards an end to all suffering. These ancient teachings have led to Buddhism being involved in a variety of enterprises and it is now active in working in the area of ‘…human rights, economic justice, political due process, and social progress. (Queen, 23:2000). It has also been active in environmental issues such as tree planting, nuclear waste and animal rights. (Momen, 161:1999).
As aforementioned, the ‘Buddhist Way’ encompasses what has come universally to be known as ‘The Four Noble Truths’ and ‘The Noble Eightfold Path’. (Billington, 61:1997). The first Noble Truth is ‘the truth is suffering’, the second Noble Truth is ‘the cause of suffering’, the third Noble Truth is ‘the cessation of suffering’ and the fourth Noble truth is ‘the Eightfold path leading to the cessation of suffering’. Suffering is a consequence of our desires and cravings which stem from our ignorance of anicca and anatta. (Ibid, p61-62). Also important to all Buddhists are the 3 Jewels, ‘the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha (community)’. However, Tibetan Buddhists (Mahayananins) speak in addition of a spiritual leader or ‘guru’ as the fourth Jewel. The ‘lama’ is revered sometimes even above the Buddha, the most famous of whom is His Holiness the Dalai Lama. (Snelling, 210-211:1998)
Theravada
Theravada is known as the most orthodox school of Buddhism. Although recognising the existence of other historical Buddhas, they place the main emphasis of their belief system on the historical figure of the Buddha, otherwise known as Siddhartha Gotama. (Harris, 26-27:1998). Theravada Buddhists regard the Buddha as being ‘supermundane’, in that having lived through many lifetimes as an animal and then a human, he eventually became a fully realized human. He was seen as having special qualities and there are mystical events attributed to his final lifetime, such as his birth through his mother’s side after a conception without intercourse between his parents. It is also said that as he was dying trees were seen to bloom out of season and shower him with their blossom. (Herbrechtsmeir, 4:1993). The Theravada tradition denies the existence of a personal god or any kind of spiritual or material matter, which exists independently as Ultimate Reality. Rather Ultimate Reality is Nirvana or Dharma, it is nothing but a ‘…transcendent truth, which governs the universe and human life…’ (Valea, 9:2003). Although the Buddha is revered by Theravadins, they make a distinction between the Buddha’s physical body (rupakaya) and his dharma body (dharmahaya) by the fact that although relics of his physical body exist in the form of hair, toenails etc and are revered as such by his followers, it is his teachings which contain his ‘transcendental spirit’. (Reynolds et al, cited in Herbrechtsmeir, 10:1993).
Three types of enlightenment are recognised by the Theravadins, represented by three ‘types of person’. The Samma Sambuddha, a fully self enlightened Buddha (only one Samma Sambuddha can exist at a given time), who has achieved enlightenment without outside assistance and who goes on to teach the way to nirvana to others; the paccekabuddha, also a ‘privately enlightened on’, who may guide others in areas of morality and meditation but does not guide them on the path to nirvana. Thirdly the Arahat, a disciple who has attained enlightenment through following the teachings of the Buddha, and has relied upon the guidance of others to guide them towards the path of enlightenment. Arahats may or may not guide others on the path to nirvana. Becoming an Arahat is the ultimate goal of the Theravadin. (Harris, 26-27:1998)
Theravadins practice meditation , focusing their minds on something such as a the breath or an object, in order to bring about enlightenment. (Harris, 83:1998) The ultimate goal of the Theravadin is transcendence from the physical world by following a path which encompasses many lifetimes, and was begun as a ‘stream-enterer’. For the Arahat entering nirvana means an end to asrava and klesha (defilements and passions), and salvation in the form of extinction. (Billington, 71:1997)
Mahayana
This new form of Buddhism emerged about four circa between 100 BCE and 100 CE. (Momen, 9, 1999). Calling itself the ‘Great Vehicle’ and claiming that the Theravadin (last remaining stand of the Hinayana) was only the introductory part of Buddha’s teachings, and dubbing the Hinayana ‘Lesser Vehicle’. (Schuman, 91:1973).
Like the Theravadins, the Mahayanins also show outward devotion to the image of the Buddha, however they place less emphasis on the historical figure of Siddhartha Gotama. (Harris, 26:1998). The Mahayanins see the concept of the Buddha not just as an historical figure but as a metaphysical being, taking innumerable forms and existing over ‘untold aeons’. (Snelling, 100:1998). They embrace the Triyaya concept of the three bodies of the Buddha thus coming to terms with the paradox of acknowledging the Buddhas as an historical figure and the belief in impermanence and no-self. The Triyaya consists of the nirmanakaya , observable body of the Buddha (manifestation body), secondly the sambhogakaya body, referring to the spiritual body (enjoyment or bliss body) and third the dharmakay (dharma body).
This is the sphere of nondual thinking, of immediate spontaneous perception, and of infinite consciousness.’ (Herbrechtsmeier, 12: 1993).
According to Mahayana Buddhism, our existence can be divided into four realities or stages which are referred to as ‘bardos’, the ‘bardo of life’, the ‘bardo of dying’, the ‘bardo of luminosity’ or ‘dharmata’ and the ‘bardo of becoming’. The ‘dharmata’, which represents a very special state of luminosity is only recognised by the experienced practitioner of meditation. This represents the Ultimate Reality of enlightenment only reached by those who are not still enticed by ‘maya’ (illusion) back into the world of samsara (rebirth) and into the ‘karmic’ bardo of becoming. (Rinpoch, 103-107:1992).
Mantras are sometimes chanted, whose words are believed to be a powerful aid towards enlightenment. For example, in the Japanese Soka Gakkai tradition the Lotus Sutra ‘Nam-myoho-renge-kyo’ is chanted over and over during meditation permating the psyche and opening up the mind and heart to the message of the sutra. (Harris, 83:1998). Zen Buddhists use the method of contemplating Koans, which are illogical stories or questions having no accurate solution. This forces the student to see reality in a new way facilitating their path towards satori (enlightenment). (Momen, 108:1999). There are plenty of rituals and symbols evident in Buddhism including for example music, incense, prayer flags, prayer wheels and mandalas. (Ibid, p105)
Unlike the Theravadins, Mahayanins do not consider the Arahat to be their ideal because they consider the Arahat to be ‘too individualistic’. The aim of attaining enlightenment remains the same but Mahayanins believe that all people have a buddha-nature (bodhicitta). Unlike the Theravadin, the Mahayanin believe that many buddhas can co-exist and that buddhahood is achievable by all. The aim of one following the path to buddhahood via the path of the bodhisattva, is to aid all sentient beings in their path towards enlightenment. (Harris, 28:1998).
Conclusion
In Theravada Buddhism more emphasis is placed on the historical figure of Buddha, Siddartha Gautama, although past Buddhas are also accepted. Whereas Mahayana Buddhism is more esoteric and encompasses a belief in various supernatural being such as the Buddha of Infinite Light, Amitabha, said to live in Sukhavati, a paradise ‘…where followers of the Pure Land sect hope to merit rebirth.’ (Snelling, 100:1998). For Theravadin the objective of training is becoming an Arahat, whereas the Mahayanins seek buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, which they describe as a less selfish route to nirvana. According to the Theravada tradition a person must undergo a vast number of rebirths before becoming a bodhisattva, (Snelling, 82, 1998) and only monks can attain buddhahood (Billington, 73:1997), whereas according to the Mahayana tradition each person has bodhicitta (Buddha-nature), and this nature must be actualised in order to attain buddhahood. (Harris, 28:1998). In the Zen strand of Mahayana, it is believed that enlightenment can be sudden and to this purpose it important to prepare the mind by the method of contemplating koans and meditation.(Momen, 108:1999).
The original Pali canon followed by Theravadins is also accepted by Mahayanins, but it has been added to. There is much more emphasis on ritual in the Mahayana tradition. At the point of death the Theravadin is advised to meditate on the three marks of existence, whereas the Mahayanin believes in a state between life and death ‘bardo’ and great emphasis is placed during this stage on the state of the mind at the time of death. Weeks of preparation will aim to ensure that at the point of death the transference of good karma will take place. Although there are short verbal blessing, known as Parittas used by the Theravadins, mantras and mudras (gestures using the hands) are used daily in Mahayana lithurgy. The Tibetan strand of Mahayana places particular emphasis on symbolism, chanting of matras, and elaborate initiation ceremonies. (Momen, 9:1999)
The Hinayana attracts by its pragmatic approach, by its soberness and immanence thinking, the Mahayana by the emotional warmth of its ethics and the colourfulness of its spiritual world. (Schuman, 93:1973)
To the Western way of thinking the Mahayana way of thinking can seem attractive, in that the sacrificial model of the bodhisattva seems to compare with a Christ-like selflessness and concern for the well-being of others. There is also the attraction of the possibility of achieving enlightenment within a single lifetime as opposed to the aeons suggested by the Theravadin tradition. Not to mention the possibility of sudden enlightenment as suggested by one strand within Mahayana, namely Zen.
However, there are many concepts which the two schools agree upon. Namely, that there is no-self and that the world and all within it are in a constant state of flux. Sentient being are in a continual state of samsara (cycle of death and rebirth) and must strive to move beyond the contrains of anicca, anatta and dukkha by realizing the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path to Enlightenment. For both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists the goal is nirvana. It seems that the main teachings of the two schools of thought are the same. Both schools have the same goal and are not critical of each other. The Mahayana school of thought seems to appeal more to our Western society which expects more instant answers to all problems, but to the Buddhist time is of no consequence as all existence is ‘maya’.
