English
中文Abstract
The study chosen for this particular assignment concerned the social and economic effects of globalisation as it related to the UAE. This was primarily concerned with the flow of migration and local employment in relation to the way in which it was impacting upon education in the region of the UAE. The concern was with identifying the contributing factors that led to migration and local employment. It took into account an array of secondary research, which gave both qualitative themes and quantitative data. These were collected from articles written on the basis of research conducted relating to the UAE. It mainly concerns the topic of higher education due to its importance in a developing nation’s socio-economic structure. The methodology used in the analysis was an array of qualitative themes and quantities data of migration and local employment. This was to be ascertained from the conditions of those that had gained higher education and those that had not. These two variables were taken into account. The independent variable was higher education, whereas the dependent variables were migration and local employment. The findings of the quantitative analysis revealed that higher education was not a significant factor in migration and/or local employment. Therefore, higher employment could not be said to be advantageous in relation to those that migrated from the UAE and/or those that found employment in the region. It was concluded that employers in the region were looking to employ both educated and uneducated workers. It was also concluded that the global environment offered employment opportunities to both educated and non-educated UAE citizens. Higher education could not be said to be significant in relation to globalisation. However, according to the qualitative findings, the structure of higher education could be amended and recommendations were provided for future research and policy.
Introduction
Globalisation and the dawning of the global age is a condition in which the world is seeing a vast change in both conceptual and material order. Relations between national institutions have subsided, giving birth to individualised and non-institutionalised social groups realised through forms of communication and trade. This in turn has had an impact upon career choices and job desire now that a whole host of possibilities and multiplicity of skill sets are on offer throughout the globe. Civilians are now less restricted by the opportunities afforded to them by the local community. Although this has been true of nations belonging to the free trading west, this is a relatively new realisation for those living in the communities of non-western communities. For example, forms of interactive and direct communication such as the internet have made easy access to and from a trans-national array of opportunities and skill sets available to anyone, or any community, with a computer. Even multi-national corporate entities producing mass produce have to lend themselves to this global phenomenon. For instance, companies have to change their process of design to incorporate consumer input directly from local sources, made possible via websites housed over the internet. Essentially, desires particular to certain demographic groups and localised differences in demand for certain products can now be recognised, facilitated and delivered in the design of corporate produce. Further, such produce is no longer delivered from a national location as an array of production areas are located throughout the world making local produce integrated into a melting pot. This resource can then in turn be sent to specific locations in which the consumer demographic requires a specific product. This can be seen in a number of examples in which the company no longer has a national base from which produce is distributed. Rather, the materials required for certain forms of production are then sent to the location after the specific design requirements have been made.
However, what runs parallel to this form of diversified, global mass production and transition is the flow of people in terms of seeking employment and skill sets and finding suitable locations in which to adopt a lifestyle based upon such skill sets. This latter part can be witnessed throughout history in mass forms of migration culminating in the employment of migrant workers and the setting up of communities in certain regions of notably western Empires. However, in recent years, this has changed to show constant streams of migration to and from the newly reconstituted global environment in both the east and the west. For instance, people seeking education from the east may find access to sources of education in the west. Further, those from the west may find opportunities in the modernist reconstruction of eastern regions. Although not mutually exclusive, this flow of people throughout the global environment has led to vast changes to international systems and has had a mass impact upon the conceptualisation of cultures, nations and communities. The desire for seeking such skills is easily applied to globalisation, both in terms of the exposure to opportunity and the material capacity to attain education. This is a feature in the UAE, made particularly prevalent due to the recent changes in educational apparatus and policy pertaining to the communities and people of the UAE. This is most notable in the restriction of former migrant Asian workers and the involvement of private educational enterprises. It is from this that we will attempt to address the flow of migration in the global environment as it accords to the UAE.
However, far from being an equilibrium between emigration and immigration on the basis of skills and values, many have indicated that there are many imbalances to the global terrain. Rather than the flow of immigration benefiting local regions and the redistribution of people harmonising to equalise the necessary skills and values across all regions, research and theory has indicated that the flow is creating greater pockets of poverty and affluence. Many global and cultural theorists have pointed to this gap in globalisation and the formation of an ideological and/or political split between two rationales. These are equally as positive and negative in nature, culminating in globalise and global scepticism. This split is summed up in the reasoning of global theorist Homi Bhabha’s (1994) account of western capitalist cosmopolitanism, wherein it is stated that:
”The global cosmopolitan configures the planet as a concentric world of national societies extending to global villages. It is a cosmopolitanism of relative prosperity and privilege founded on ideas of progress and free market forces of competition. Such a concept of global ‘development’ has faith in the virtually boundless powers of technological innovation and global communications. Global cosmopolitans of this ilk frequently inhabit the ‘imaginary communities’ that consist of silicon valleys and software campuses; although, increasingly, they have to face up to the carcereal world of call centres and sweat shops of out sourcing.” (Bhabha, 1994) It is with this concern that this study turned to the example of the UAE to assess whether the current structure of education was beneficial to the community of the UAE. This was done in two ways. Firstly, by assessing the link between higher education and migration from the region of the UAE. And secondly, to assess the link between higher education and employment in the region of the UAE.
Importance of this study
Much has been made of education in relation to globalisation in the UAE particularly in the fields of current political and academic domains. This can be seen in the rising dominance of the respective fields of immigration policy and cultural research. The importance of globalisation in relation to higher education in the UAE is markedly clearer when considering the nature in which the UAE is situated in the global perspective. The UAE is a relatively emerging region in which modernist expansion is currently being facilitated by the inclusion of capitalist reproduction aimed at forming strong private business and localised security (Nambiar, 1995). The latter is maintained by the government’s production of refined oil. However, a diversification of non-oil based income has become the central aim of private industry in the UAE and this is supported by the government (Nasri, 2009). Unlike many regions in the area, the UAE is politically immersed in the continuing increase of modernist reproduction and has little in the way of ideological resistance (Bohning, 1996). Rather, globalisation is creating greater pools of affluence in the economy of the UAE and the current socio-economic climate has become dependent upon euro-centric forms of modernist expansion. The study of the effects of globalisation on education is therefore significant.
However, what has not been measured and critiqued to any vast degree is the impact of globalisation in relation to education. There are essentially two ways of approaching this topic through the global and the local. For example, migration to a career outside of the UAE is evidence of global transition whereas local employment is evidence of local produce and business hub within a fixed geographical location. In light of its seeming importance in the global environment, the flow of people as well as product would appear to be of significant value to both the political and academic domains that have been mentioned. Although it would be unreasonable to expect a study based upon primary sources, the incorporation of carefully selected secondary information gives the appropriate data to address the extent to which education is sought. Essentially, the importance of utilising secondary data would be good enough to indicate certain thematic factors arising from current trends in globalisation and modernist expansion within the UAE. The acknowledgement of the forms of education on offer in the UAE could then be identified in relation to future research.
As has been mentioned, the importance of this study can be seen in relation to the schools of the humanities and economics. This is due to the vast impact that migration has, and is having, on how the UAE perceives and conceptualises fields of knowledge. Further, material effects have also begun to appear in communities and societies owing to the affects of globalisation. In conducting studies such as this, the effects of globalisation across both the human and economic sciences can be observed and used in further empirical research and developing cultural theory, as well as those invested in the future culture of the UAE. Finally, advice can be offered as to the direction of education in relation to local need.
Aims of this study
The aim of this study was to ascertain and assess some of the tangible factors pertaining to globalisation that were particularly relevant to the EAU. The two conditional factors that were to be measured in this study were higher education and non-higher education. These were measured against both migration and local employment to see whether there was any difference between them. The main aim of the assessment was to see if it could be said with any clarity that higher education had an impact upon migration and/or local employment. This was so that the current impact of globalisation could be qualified as a positive or negative force in relation to human development and the local communities in the UAE.
Migration and local employment were chosen as the objects of the study owing to the political motivation of human resource groups concerned in the region of the UAE, such as the Arab Human Development Reports (AHDRs). These and similar human resource groups frequently engage political and academic institutions, as well as citizens, in certain countries in relation to global concerns. This is done as they are perceived as vulnerable groups next to the might of affluent, euro-centric nations and institutions. The primary intention is to build an independent body of knowledge and understanding regarding regional, local and national development priorities. In such work, disadvantaged groups in the population are identified. Subsequently, policies can be suggested, strategies can be built and opportunities for investment can be considered with the benefit of the community in mind.
The research conducted by such research groups, measure human progress often indicating the best course of action for socio-economic and developmental change. It is with this body of research that we aim to draw upon the various data and analysis of Human Development Reports relating to the UAE. Taking the human development approach to the regional level, this research aimed to highlight the areas of positive regional development and areas of negative development in relation to the particular onset of global migration. This was done with an epistemological and ontological framework emphasising and defining positive and negative factors on the basis of human rights, social inclusion, avoidance of poverty, levels of manageable education, localised and communally beneficial economic constraints and mutually opportune forms of globalisation.
Concept of this study
The concept of this study was centred on qualitative research and the notion of thematic analysis. This meant that the research would be geared firstly toward gathering relevant primary studies before assessing the legitimacy of the tools and methodology used in the experiments. After ascertaining this information, a discussion of the legitimate themes relating to this topic could then be discussed by the author of this study before making conclusions. The measuring of two primary themes was incorporated in this study on the basis of both negative and positive human developmental factors pertaining to local communities. These factors were migration and local employment. The primary conceptual tone of the study was therefore one concerning the identification of themes and analysis of thematic data in relation to certain quantitative figures regarding migration in the UAE.
Much of the secondary research used in the study referred directly to the positive and negative factors associated with migration in the global environment. For example, the HDR (2009) states and defines several of these factors suggesting that:
‘There is a range of evidence about the positive impacts of migration on human development, through such avenues as increased household incomes and improved access to education and health services. There is further evidence that migration can empower traditionally disadvantaged groups, in particular women. At the same time, risks to human development are also present where migration is a reaction to threats and denial of choice, and where regular opportunities for movement are constrained.’ (HDR, 2009) The concept of the study was therefore unconcerned with primary quantitative data or a hypothesis led analysis based upon an experiment. Rather, the focus was geared towards identification of already gathered data extracted from secondary research. There were two conditions under examination in terms of independent and dependent variables. This was to provide the study with its main qualitative methodological apparatus by providing discernable quantitative data.
Methods and Tools of Study
The methodology used in this study was the qualitative address of the themes of migration and local employment. This was to be ascertained from a body of secondary research, in which data was extracted and compared between the conditions of those that had gained higher education and those that had not. This was done to see whether both ideological and material forms of globalisation had had an impact upon education. The tools of the research consisted of data analysis. The form that the themes took on was assessed by being measured as quantitative data extracted from the secondary research. Although the methodology was predominantly qualitative in nature as themes emerging from secondary data were analysed, the study measured the difference between the conditions of education and non-education quantitatively.
Two variables were taken into account. The independent variable was higher education, whereas the dependent variables were migration and local employment. No participants were used due to the employment of secondary data. Further, the only material used for the analysis was the secondary data. The study sought to ascertain whether or not higher education was a significant factor in relation to both migration and local employment.
Theme of Study
The theme of the study focused upon two factors associated with globalisation: migration and local employment. The factors were established as being indicative of globalisation in the UAE and if found to be significant would give an indication as to the value of a higher education in the UAE. By constructing the secondary data into two factors in relation to employment, the many themes associated with UAE society was assimilated. However, these themes can be drawn out on the basis of the research findings. Typical themes associated with education in relation to the local community are the empowerment of disadvantaged groups, such as ethnic minorities and women; greater export and import of skilled workers; greater knowledge capital; increases in household income; improved access to education; universal services; improved rate of employment; regeneration of urban environments; improved transport; cleaner towns and cities; higher levels of tourism and trade; boost in local economy; the denial of opportunities; increases in poverty-affluence divides; outsourcing; cheaper produce; health and safety risks; appropriation of regional culture; strong gender dependency and patriarchy; conflict; environmental degradation; lack of education; lack of employment (Human Development Report, 2009).
Historical Background
Migration and employment are concepts long associated with globalisation in the sense that globalisation is itself a diversification of skills and people in relation to regions of need. Further, neither factor has its own taxonomy as they are each determined in part by a number of factors that can also be considered part of globalisation and local need/resource. For instance, the condition of colonisation that saw mass capitalist production and modernist construction in formerly eastern parts of the world led to the expansion, mobility and incorporation of territories and customs in the region of the UAE resulting in its establishment in 1971. This redefinition of customs and laws alongside incorporating a form of mass education culminated in the reconstruction of the socio-economic structure and community of the UAE (Looney, 1992). Although overt forms of reconstruction have been overturned in the contemporary stage and autonomy has been given back by former European Empires to the post colonial regions and their people, the socio-economic environment of most regions are nevertheless global to varying degrees. Western hegemony is rife in many areas owing to the affluence of western countries and the UAE still thrives upon western capital and investment primarily due to its rich oil reserves.
The UAE’s history fits into the backdrop of European history at the time of Imperial expansion, though as a culture it has a much longer history. Nevertheless, in recent times the region has undergone massive changes owing to contemporary globalisation and the socio-political success of global capitalism and modern expansion throughout many regions of the Middle East. Indeed, the region was named the UAE in 1971, making it a recent invention. Essentially, the area underwent a modernist reconstruction in the contemporary age maintaining socio-economic stability through the governmental ownership and trade in oil reserves alongside private investment (Prakash, 1998). However, recent changes have seen immigration laws tighten and, most importantly for this research, education expand to incorporate the global environment.
We can see from the table that the % for of those with a primary education in the region of the UAE was 14.4. We can also see from the table that the % for those with a secondary education in the region of the UAE was 50.2. The table also showed that that the % for those with a tertiary education in the region of the UAE was 24.2. We can see that there is an observable difference between the figures in that over half of the migrant population has a secondary education. Higher education makes up almost one quarter of the population leaving primary and completely uneducated as the final quarter.
The mean average shows the difference in education for those migrating to the region at some point in their career. Those with a higher education were half as abundant to those with a secondary education. Further, those without an education were the lowest in the table. It would appear from the data that education had a significant impact on migration. Therefore, it can be said that education had a significant effect on migration. We can see from the table that the unemployment rate for those with a primary education was 14.9. We can also see from the table that the unemployment rate for those with a secondary education was 18.8 and that those with a higher education were 17.1. We can see that there was not an observable difference between the three rates.
The mean average shows the difference in unemployment rate between those in the higher, secondary and primary education categories. Those without standard deviation show the spread of the mean values in either condition. The variance between the two results was not significant. It would appear from the data that there is no significant difference between the three conditions. Therefore, it cannot be said that higher education had a significant effect on employment in the UAE.
It would appear that although secondary education was prevalent in migration to UAE it cannot be said that this leads to significantly higher levels of employment and/or opportunity. This is because there is no correlation between education and levels of unemployment. Unemployment was found to be similar across all stratums of education. We can see that there is no observable correlation between higher education (highly skilled) and primary education (unskilled) and employment figures. The only correlation appeared to be between secondary education and employment.
Qualitative Analysis
According to much of the research, higher education has become an increasing concern in the UAE owing to globalisation. In 2004, the gender divide in the region was 27% male and 73% female (Zachariah et al, 2002). The majority of the education was realised through the investment of the United States. This is seemingly due to private funded education being perceived as a good indicator of competition within the community. However, the majority of those in higher education or seeking to pave out a career path were found not likely to move oversees (Zachariah et al, 2002). This was found to be beneficial to the local community overall who wished to study at a higher level. Post graduate education provided by the government was found to be vastly biased towards business studies, which outranked all other academic schools indicating a strong business orientation in the local regions. Alternatives of science and mathematics were provided for by foreign private institutions. Davies (1999) indicated that although the state of education in the region bore a good relation to the global domain, changes had to be made to teacher training, curriculum development and technology so that the UAE could incorporate a more diverse and interchangeable relationship with the global environment in which its people and businesses operated. The completion of major infrastructure projects and economic recession in the region from its inception has substantially reduced the demand for unskilled and semi-skilled labourers in the UAE. Current demand is for demand will be for categories of skilled workers, technicians, computer workers, heavy equipment operators, electrical workers and professional categories such as doctors, nurses, engineers, teachers and accountants (Zachariah et al, 2002). This was found to have led to decreases in accessibility to the country from outside nations, such as with those of Asian extraction. Although it would seem that higher education is more common in the UAE, there is nothing in the findings of this research to suggest that the attainment of higher education has an impact on either emigration or local employment.
recommendation
It would appear from the findings of this research that many of the factors relating to education are positive. However, education cannot be said to be indicative of migration or local employment. Of course, the extent to which it can be said whether something is positive or negative relies upon the epistemological and ontological perspective adopted by any study and care has been taken to acknowledge this in this study. Nevertheless, with the UAE in mind and the context explained from the outset, it can be said that the findings suggested that positive factors associated with education are in evidence. However, education was not found to be linked with neither globalisation nor local employment indicating that the UAE requires both skilled and unskilled workers and that both skilled and unskilled workers migrate.
It is the recommendation of this research that further empirical studies should be aimed at the topic of education by way of primary research. That is to say that instead of utilising a body of secondary research in relation to two factors, themes themselves can be factored from the outset in an experimental structure. Use of this study as a pilot study can then be undertaken with the measurement of either individuals moving to or from the UAE or alternatively the values of certain employment needs formed in the region of the UAE. This can be measured against the socio-economic environment of the UAE or compared with that of the global environment. Future research could also look into the role of career paths in such things as career development resources. This is because higher education may be ascertained by the people of the UAE in terms of being part of a temporal process. That is to say that people embarking upon a career path in higher education could be doing so as it is a normalised thing to do rather than a directed means to an end. Regardless, the impact of such an indifferent approach to education and career could be detrimental to the people and communities of the UAE as it may lead to exploitation.
Conclusion
The quantitative findings of this study revealed that higher education was not a significant factor in migration and/or local employment. Therefore, higher employment cannot be said to be advantageous in relation to those that migrate from the UAE and/or those that find employment in the region. Therefore, it would appear that employers in both the region and are looking to employ both educated and uneducated workers. Further, it would appear that the global environment offers employment opportunities for both educated and non-educated UAE citizens. Higher education cannot be said to be significant in relation to globalisation. However, according to the qualitative findings, the structure of higher education could be amended. It is the suggestion that this research could be used as an indication of particular themes in relation to education in the UAE from a broad perspective and that these themes can be used in the fields of notably politics and academic theory associated with the UAE and globalisation. They could also be used to match against pre-existing theories relating to globalisation as evidence to show the contemporary gaps in education.
